| Total N | n Female | n Male | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 721 | 498 | 223 |
| Australia | 2115 | 1089 | 1026 |
| Austria | 1351 | 724 | 627 |
| Bangladesh | 366 | 203 | 163 |
| Belgium | 1138 | 467 | 671 |
| Bolivia | 29 | 17 | 12 |
| Brazil | 1757 | 1052 | 705 |
| Bulgaria | 632 | 414 | 218 |
| Canada | 954 | 579 | 375 |
| Chile | 97 | 63 | 34 |
| China | 1030 | 505 | 525 |
| Colombia | 1211 | 764 | 447 |
| Costa Rica | 25 | 9 | 16 |
| Croatia | 503 | 261 | 242 |
| Cuba | 43 | 22 | 21 |
| Denmark | 553 | 273 | 280 |
| Dominican Republic | 36 | 29 | 7 |
| Ecuador | 148 | 82 | 66 |
| El Salvador | 28 | 15 | 13 |
| Finland | 649 | 314 | 335 |
| France | 1107 | 606 | 501 |
| Germany | 1537 | 772 | 765 |
| Greece | 633 | 221 | 412 |
| Guatemala | 48 | 21 | 27 |
| Honduras | 24 | 17 | 7 |
| Hungary | 501 | 258 | 243 |
| India | 589 | 242 | 347 |
| Iraq | 528 | 255 | 273 |
| Ireland | 728 | 485 | 243 |
| Israel | 1242 | 629 | 613 |
| Italy | 1248 | 675 | 573 |
| Japan | 1145 | 586 | 559 |
| Latvia | 993 | 630 | 363 |
| Mexico | 1235 | 622 | 613 |
| Morocco | 614 | 328 | 286 |
| Nepal | 338 | 180 | 158 |
| Netherlands | 1286 | 598 | 688 |
| New Zealand | 508 | 255 | 253 |
| Nicaragua | 16 | 10 | 6 |
| Nigeria | 516 | 252 | 264 |
| North Macedonia | 674 | 380 | 294 |
| Norway | 521 | 282 | 239 |
| Pakistan | 462 | 247 | 215 |
| Panama | 18 | 12 | 6 |
| Paraguay | 16 | 14 | 2 |
| Peru | 91 | 41 | 50 |
| Philippines | 497 | 251 | 246 |
| Poland | 1797 | 890 | 907 |
| Puerto Rico* | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| Romania | 494 | 244 | 250 |
| Russia | 507 | 271 | 236 |
| Senegal | 298 | 108 | 190 |
| Serbia | 715 | 529 | 186 |
| Singapore | 515 | 265 | 250 |
| Slovakia | 1091 | 541 | 550 |
| South Africa | 563 | 422 | 141 |
| South Korea | 486 | 227 | 259 |
| Spain | 1077 | 353 | 724 |
| Sweden | 1552 | 631 | 921 |
| Switzerland | 1053 | 534 | 519 |
| Taiwan | 833 | 419 | 414 |
| Turkey | 1423 | 731 | 692 |
| Ukraine | 577 | 303 | 274 |
| United Arab Emirates | 182 | 88 | 94 |
| United Kingdom | 544 | 278 | 266 |
| United States | 1458 | 747 | 711 |
| Uruguay | 49 | 34 | 15 |
| Venezuela | 96 | 54 | 42 |
Note. * = sample too small to be included in analysis below
Â
| mean F | SD F | mean M | SD M | t | df | d | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 8.44 | 1.44 | 8.02 | 1.44 | -3.42 | 392.5 | 0.09 | .001* |
| Australia | 7.79 | 1.78 | 7.14 | 1.78 | -8.46 | 2110.82 | 0.12 | < .001** |
| Austria | 8.09 | 1.58 | 7.68 | 1.58 | -4.81 | 1322.95 | 0.08 | < .001** |
| Bangladesh | 8.81 | 1.29 | 8.53 | 1.29 | -2.16 | 353.12 | 0.32 | .031* |
| Belgium | 8.12 | 1.37 | 7.52 | 1.37 | -6.94 | 1065.43 | 0 | < .001** |
| Bolivia | 8.05 | 1.56 | 8.52 | 1.56 | 0.86 | 25.61 | -0.45 | .398 |
| Brazil | 8.7 | 1.37 | 8.08 | 1.37 | -8.1 | 1271.37 | 0.05 | < .001** |
| Bulgaria | 8.34 | 1.75 | 8.06 | 1.75 | -1.98 | 444.45 | 0.29 | .049* |
| Canada | 8.12 | 1.67 | 7.58 | 1.67 | -4.63 | 753.2 | 0.17 | < .001** |
| Chile | 8.36 | 1.4 | 7.8 | 1.4 | -1.86 | 66.54 | 0.47 | .067 |
| China | 7.58 | 1.28 | 7.61 | 1.28 | 0.41 | 1027.93 | 0 | .680 |
| Colombia | 8.47 | 1.5 | 8.12 | 1.5 | -3.62 | 839.78 | 0.09 | < .001** |
| Costa Rica | 8.24 | 1.6 | 7.95 | 1.6 | -0.47 | 14.4 | -0.74 | .648 |
| Croatia | 7.94 | 1.76 | 7.2 | 1.76 | -4.72 | 498.58 | 0.18 | < .001** |
| Cuba | 8.87 | 1.57 | 8.91 | 1.57 | 0.09 | 40.68 | 0.14 | .927 |
| Denmark | 6.79 | 1.83 | 7.42 | 1.83 | 4.01 | 550.51 | -0.03 | < .001** |
| Dominican Republic | 8.99 | 1.32 | 7.66 | 1.32 | -1.92 | 7.79 | -0.25 | .092 |
| Ecuador | 8.21 | 1.41 | 8.2 | 1.41 | -0.02 | 137.1 | -0.17 | .986 |
| El Salvador | 8.53 | 1.4 | 8.4 | 1.4 | -0.24 | 24.71 | 0.09 | .812 |
| Finland | 7.97 | 1.47 | 7.29 | 1.47 | -5.45 | 644.03 | 0.3 | < .001** |
| France | 7.15 | 1.69 | 6.77 | 1.69 | -3.77 | 1064.53 | 0.07 | < .001** |
| Germany | 7.39 | 2.02 | 7.09 | 2.02 | -3.07 | 1527.98 | 0.18 | .002* |
| Greece | 8.58 | 1.19 | 7.93 | 1.19 | -5.97 | 543.09 | 0.34 | < .001** |
| Guatemala | 9.19 | 1.07 | 8.23 | 1.07 | -2.39 | 44.36 | -0.35 | .021* |
| Honduras | 9.15 | 1.3 | 8.69 | 1.3 | -0.88 | 12.98 | 0.53 | .394 |
| Hungary | 8.39 | 1.49 | 7.69 | 1.49 | -5.01 | 489.28 | 0.22 | < .001** |
| India | 8.47 | 1.48 | 8.48 | 1.48 | 0.12 | 550.15 | 0.05 | .903 |
| Iraq | 7.86 | 1.66 | 7.71 | 1.66 | -1.02 | 525.25 | -0.05 | .310 |
| Ireland | 8.71 | 1.17 | 8.25 | 1.17 | -4.64 | 438.3 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Israel | 8.46 | 1.42 | 8.04 | 1.42 | -4.85 | 1208.38 | 0.2 | < .001** |
| Italy | 7.71 | 1.64 | 7.18 | 1.64 | -5.69 | 1208.65 | 0.08 | < .001** |
| Japan | 6.41 | 1.59 | 6.02 | 1.59 | -4.27 | 1142.94 | 0.07 | < .001** |
| Latvia | 7.36 | 1.74 | 6.44 | 1.74 | -7.63 | 700.8 | 0.4 | < .001** |
| Mexico | 8.47 | 1.49 | 8.16 | 1.49 | -3.52 | 1221.74 | -0.03 | < .001** |
| Morocco | 8.1 | 1.77 | 7.7 | 1.77 | -2.77 | 596.76 | 0.08 | .006* |
| Nepal | 8.69 | 1.35 | 8.12 | 1.35 | -3.55 | 314.48 | 0.17 | < .001** |
| Netherlands | 8.05 | 1.36 | 7.42 | 1.36 | -7.86 | 1282.99 | 0.27 | < .001** |
| New Zealand | 7.23 | 1.74 | 8.03 | 1.74 | 5.46 | 500.89 | 0.01 | < .001** |
| Nicaragua | 8.18 | 1.78 | 8.63 | 1.78 | 0.52 | 11.41 | -0.35 | .615 |
| Nigeria | 8.76 | 1.43 | 8.6 | 1.43 | -1.3 | 513.53 | -0.1 | .194 |
| North Macedonia | 8.45 | 1.45 | 7.86 | 1.45 | -4.68 | 568.38 | 0.1 | < .001** |
| Norway | 8.32 | 1.47 | 7.56 | 1.47 | -5.74 | 496.76 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| Pakistan | 8.56 | 1.5 | 7.96 | 1.5 | -3.75 | 410.07 | -0.01 | < .001** |
| Panama | 8.4 | 1.93 | 8.63 | 1.93 | 0.29 | 13.6 | -0.2 | .773 |
| Paraguay | 8.2 | 1.5 | 7.3 | 1.5 | -1.12 | 1.75 | 0.84 | .394 |
| Peru | 7.9 | 1.64 | 8.27 | 1.64 | 1.09 | 83.37 | -0.15 | .280 |
| Philippines | 8.34 | 1.67 | 8.07 | 1.67 | -1.84 | 494.83 | 0.02 | .066 |
| Poland | 7.71 | 1.76 | 7.17 | 1.76 | -6.43 | 1793.8 | 0.22 | < .001** |
| Puerto Rico | 9.8 | - | 9 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Romania | 7.96 | 1.83 | 7.6 | 1.83 | -2.27 | 488.56 | 0.13 | .024* |
| Russia | 7.65 | 1.83 | 7.12 | 1.83 | -3.33 | 498.99 | 0.19 | .001* |
| Senegal | 8.54 | 1.64 | 8.24 | 1.64 | -1.54 | 223.13 | 0.02 | .124 |
| Serbia | 8.41 | 1.57 | 7.96 | 1.57 | -3.3 | 315 | 0.26 | .001* |
| Singapore | 7.56 | 1.7 | 7.21 | 1.7 | -2.43 | 512.97 | -0.17 | .016* |
| Slovakia | 7.8 | 1.63 | 7.14 | 1.63 | -6.55 | 1088.82 | 0.37 | < .001** |
| South Africa | 8.89 | 1.16 | 8.29 | 1.16 | -4.39 | 200.46 | 0.38 | < .001** |
| South Korea | 6.85 | 1.58 | 6.7 | 1.58 | -1.02 | 477.13 | -0.09 | .307 |
| Spain | 8.47 | 1.3 | 7.97 | 1.3 | -5.59 | 788.67 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Sweden | 8.51 | 1.25 | 7.83 | 1.25 | -9.54 | 1512.41 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Switzerland | 7.53 | 1.75 | 6.83 | 1.75 | -6.63 | 1050.86 | 0.06 | < .001** |
| Taiwan | 6.71 | 1.58 | 6.61 | 1.58 | -0.95 | 830.97 | -0.15 | .341 |
| Turkey | 8.21 | 1.61 | 7.78 | 1.61 | -4.75 | 1386.97 | 0.19 | < .001** |
| Ukraine | 7.96 | 1.57 | 7.14 | 1.57 | -6.19 | 565.45 | 0.05 | < .001** |
| United Arab Emirates | 8.65 | 1.4 | 8.25 | 1.4 | -1.8 | 179.31 | 0.22 | .074 |
| United Kingdom | 8.85 | 1.14 | 8.2 | 1.14 | -6.01 | 512.82 | 0.33 | < .001** |
| United States | 7.67 | 1.95 | 7.06 | 1.95 | -6.26 | 1454.12 | -0.22 | < .001** |
| Uruguay | 8.24 | 1.39 | 7.89 | 1.39 | -0.61 | 20.36 | 0.14 | .551 |
| Venezuela | 8.37 | 1.98 | 8.45 | 1.98 | 0.22 | 93.99 | -0.12 | .829 |
Note. * = sig. at p < .05; ** = sig. at p < .001
Â
Figure 1: Effect size for gender differences in Internalization across countries
| Total N | n Female | n Male | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 721 | 498 | 223 |
| Australia | 2118 | 1091 | 1027 |
| Austria | 1371 | 731 | 640 |
| Bangladesh | 370 | 207 | 163 |
| Belgium | 1149 | 470 | 679 |
| Bolivia | 29 | 17 | 12 |
| Brazil | 1765 | 1057 | 708 |
| Bulgaria | 638 | 417 | 221 |
| Canada | 956 | 580 | 376 |
| Chile | 97 | 63 | 34 |
| China | 1030 | 505 | 525 |
| Colombia | 1222 | 771 | 451 |
| Costa Rica | 25 | 9 | 16 |
| Croatia | 507 | 263 | 244 |
| Cuba | 43 | 22 | 21 |
| Denmark | 553 | 273 | 280 |
| Dominican Republic | 36 | 29 | 7 |
| Ecuador | 148 | 82 | 66 |
| El Salvador | 28 | 15 | 13 |
| Finland | 649 | 314 | 335 |
| France | 1112 | 610 | 502 |
| Germany | 1581 | 794 | 787 |
| Greece | 633 | 221 | 412 |
| Guatemala | 48 | 21 | 27 |
| Honduras | 24 | 17 | 7 |
| Hungary | 505 | 260 | 245 |
| India | 608 | 254 | 354 |
| Iraq | 535 | 255 | 280 |
| Ireland | 732 | 487 | 245 |
| Israel | 1243 | 631 | 612 |
| Italy | 1257 | 679 | 578 |
| Japan | 1151 | 588 | 563 |
| Latvia | 993 | 630 | 363 |
| Mexico | 1243 | 624 | 619 |
| Morocco | 630 | 333 | 297 |
| Nepal | 341 | 182 | 159 |
| Netherlands | 1296 | 602 | 694 |
| New Zealand | 509 | 256 | 253 |
| Nicaragua | 16 | 10 | 6 |
| Nigeria | 522 | 256 | 266 |
| North Macedonia | 688 | 385 | 303 |
| Norway | 526 | 282 | 244 |
| Pakistan | 467 | 249 | 218 |
| Panama | 18 | 12 | 6 |
| Paraguay | 16 | 14 | 2 |
| Peru | 91 | 41 | 50 |
| Philippines | 500 | 252 | 248 |
| Poland | 1797 | 890 | 907 |
| Puerto Rico* | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| Romania | 498 | 247 | 251 |
| Russia | 507 | 271 | 236 |
| Senegal | 318 | 115 | 203 |
| Serbia | 725 | 535 | 190 |
| Singapore | 517 | 266 | 251 |
| Slovakia | 1096 | 544 | 552 |
| South Africa | 604 | 450 | 154 |
| South Korea | 489 | 230 | 259 |
| Spain | 1089 | 357 | 732 |
| Sweden | 1564 | 635 | 929 |
| Switzerland | 1053 | 534 | 519 |
| Taiwan | 833 | 419 | 414 |
| Turkey | 1431 | 734 | 697 |
| Ukraine | 577 | 303 | 274 |
| United Arab Emirates | 185 | 90 | 95 |
| United Kingdom | 545 | 278 | 267 |
| United States | 1462 | 751 | 711 |
| Uruguay | 49 | 34 | 15 |
| Venezuela | 96 | 54 | 42 |
Note. * = sample too small to be included in analysis below
Â
| mean F | SD F | mean M | SD M | t | df | d | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 5.67 | 2.26 | 5.47 | 2.26 | -1.1 | 425.98 | 0.09 | .272 |
| Australia | 5.58 | 1.99 | 5.33 | 1.99 | -2.87 | 2093.45 | 0.12 | .004* |
| Austria | 5.08 | 2.07 | 4.92 | 2.07 | -1.49 | 1357.23 | 0.08 | .137 |
| Bangladesh | 6.29 | 2.1 | 5.59 | 2.1 | -3 | 330.38 | 0.32 | .003* |
| Belgium | 4.75 | 1.85 | 4.74 | 1.85 | -0.01 | 1048.03 | 0 | .989 |
| Bolivia | 5.89 | 2.05 | 6.77 | 2.05 | 1.18 | 24.87 | -0.45 | .250 |
| Brazil | 6.11 | 2.06 | 5.98 | 2.06 | -1.18 | 1431.75 | 0.06 | .238 |
| Bulgaria | 5.48 | 2.27 | 4.79 | 2.27 | -3.46 | 425.37 | 0.29 | .001* |
| Canada | 5.2 | 1.8 | 4.88 | 1.8 | -2.51 | 733.9 | 0.17 | .012* |
| Chile | 5.93 | 2.15 | 4.88 | 2.15 | -2.1 | 61.15 | 0.47 | .039* |
| China | 6.44 | 1.51 | 6.44 | 1.51 | -0.07 | 1025.55 | 0 | .944 |
| Colombia | 5.85 | 2.26 | 5.62 | 2.26 | -1.63 | 925.07 | 0.1 | .103 |
| Costa Rica | 4.58 | 1.85 | 6.21 | 1.85 | 1.86 | 21.02 | -0.74 | .077 |
| Croatia | 5.22 | 2.07 | 4.87 | 2.07 | -1.99 | 505 | 0.18 | .047* |
| Cuba | 7.25 | 2.66 | 6.91 | 2.66 | -0.44 | 40.94 | 0.14 | .665 |
| Denmark | 4.46 | 2.01 | 4.52 | 2.01 | 0.36 | 550.92 | -0.03 | .722 |
| Dominican Republic | 6.83 | 2.36 | 7.37 | 2.36 | 0.83 | 17.32 | -0.25 | .417 |
| Ecuador | 6.04 | 2.34 | 6.43 | 2.34 | 1.03 | 141.47 | -0.17 | .306 |
| El Salvador | 4.96 | 2.95 | 4.68 | 2.95 | -0.23 | 23.96 | 0.09 | .818 |
| Finland | 4.09 | 1.98 | 3.49 | 1.98 | -3.87 | 643.85 | 0.3 | < .001** |
| France | 5.37 | 1.89 | 5.24 | 1.89 | -1.12 | 1067.69 | 0.07 | .262 |
| Germany | 4.61 | 2.22 | 4.22 | 2.22 | -3.57 | 1578.1 | 0.18 | < .001** |
| Greece | 4.98 | 1.73 | 4.38 | 1.73 | -4.11 | 462.59 | 0.34 | < .001** |
| Guatemala | 5.56 | 2.28 | 6.38 | 2.28 | 1.18 | 44.64 | -0.35 | .243 |
| Honduras | 7.88 | 1.85 | 6.94 | 1.85 | -1.16 | 11.6 | 0.53 | .271 |
| Hungary | 5.68 | 2.12 | 5.23 | 2.12 | -2.41 | 502.54 | 0.21 | .016* |
| India | 5.05 | 2.48 | 5.01 | 2.48 | -0.17 | 512.15 | 0.01 | .863 |
| Iraq | 5.81 | 1.82 | 5.87 | 1.82 | 0.33 | 531.71 | -0.03 | .744 |
| Ireland | 5.19 | 1.99 | 4.57 | 1.99 | -3.92 | 481.79 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Israel | 5.18 | 2.03 | 4.78 | 2.03 | -3.42 | 1239.94 | 0.19 | .001* |
| Italy | 5.94 | 1.94 | 5.78 | 1.94 | -1.51 | 1228.86 | 0.09 | .132 |
| Japan | 4.5 | 1.68 | 4.38 | 1.68 | -1.18 | 1141.04 | 0.07 | .236 |
| Latvia | 5.17 | 1.87 | 4.42 | 1.87 | -6.03 | 747.14 | 0.4 | < .001** |
| Mexico | 6.11 | 2.3 | 6.17 | 2.3 | 0.48 | 1240.07 | -0.03 | .629 |
| Morocco | 5.31 | 2.24 | 5.14 | 2.24 | -0.96 | 615.25 | 0.08 | .338 |
| Nepal | 6.75 | 1.74 | 6.46 | 1.74 | -1.52 | 327.02 | 0.17 | .130 |
| Netherlands | 5.06 | 1.91 | 4.53 | 1.91 | -4.87 | 1282.91 | 0.27 | < .001** |
| New Zealand | 5.4 | 1.9 | 5.35 | 1.9 | -0.27 | 506.78 | 0.02 | .785 |
| Nicaragua | 5.42 | 3.22 | 6.43 | 3.22 | 0.65 | 11.68 | -0.35 | .527 |
| Nigeria | 7.1 | 2 | 7.29 | 2 | 1.14 | 512.1 | -0.1 | .256 |
| North Macedonia | 5.41 | 2.19 | 5.22 | 2.19 | -1.15 | 652.48 | 0.09 | .250 |
| Norway | 5.08 | 1.88 | 4.52 | 1.88 | -3.55 | 520.43 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Pakistan | 6.02 | 1.86 | 6.02 | 1.86 | -0.04 | 444.72 | 0 | .967 |
| Panama | 5.57 | 2.29 | 6.07 | 2.29 | 0.32 | 7.26 | -0.2 | .758 |
| Paraguay | 6.51 | 2.65 | 4.5 | 2.65 | -2.33 | 6.88 | 0.84 | .054 |
| Peru | 5.7 | 2.19 | 6.04 | 2.19 | 0.71 | 87.2 | -0.15 | .478 |
| Philippines | 6.58 | 2.04 | 6.55 | 2.04 | -0.19 | 495.11 | 0.02 | .852 |
| Poland | 5.67 | 1.96 | 5.25 | 1.96 | -4.71 | 1785.89 | 0.22 | < .001** |
| Puerto Rico | 8.8 | - | 6.8 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Romania | 6.37 | 1.98 | 6.11 | 1.98 | -1.51 | 492.41 | 0.14 | .133 |
| Russia | 4.25 | 2.04 | 3.86 | 2.04 | -2.14 | 494.62 | 0.19 | .033* |
| Senegal | 5.51 | 2.29 | 5.54 | 2.29 | 0.09 | 261.84 | -0.01 | .928 |
| Serbia | 4.49 | 2.26 | 3.9 | 2.26 | -3.24 | 355.4 | 0.26 | .001* |
| Singapore | 5.43 | 1.86 | 5.74 | 1.86 | 1.92 | 514.36 | -0.17 | .056 |
| Slovakia | 5.84 | 2.01 | 5.1 | 2.01 | -6.05 | 1093.94 | 0.37 | < .001** |
| South Africa | 6.08 | 2.1 | 5.21 | 2.1 | -4.18 | 249.59 | 0.41 | < .001** |
| South Korea | 6.03 | 1.54 | 6.16 | 1.54 | 0.96 | 468.68 | -0.09 | .339 |
| Spain | 5.39 | 1.98 | 4.77 | 1.98 | -4.89 | 711.96 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| Sweden | 5.07 | 2.02 | 4.43 | 2.02 | -6.11 | 1359.93 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| Switzerland | 4.95 | 1.97 | 4.84 | 1.97 | -0.9 | 1051 | 0.06 | .369 |
| Taiwan | 4.97 | 1.75 | 5.25 | 1.75 | 2.21 | 821.58 | -0.15 | .027* |
| Turkey | 6.17 | 2.39 | 5.73 | 2.39 | -3.67 | 1426.52 | 0.19 | < .001** |
| Ukraine | 4.44 | 2.11 | 4.32 | 2.11 | -0.64 | 545.09 | 0.05 | .521 |
| United Arab Emirates | 6.14 | 1.81 | 5.68 | 1.81 | -1.59 | 181.6 | 0.23 | .113 |
| United Kingdom | 4.86 | 2.08 | 4.2 | 2.08 | -3.78 | 543 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| United States | 5.85 | 2 | 6.31 | 2 | 4.1 | 1422.19 | -0.22 | < .001** |
| Uruguay | 5.42 | 2.28 | 5.11 | 2.28 | -0.45 | 27.87 | 0.14 | .655 |
| Venezuela | 5.93 | 2.73 | 6.23 | 2.73 | 0.58 | 92.37 | -0.12 | .560 |
Note. * = sig. at p < .05; ** = sig. at p < .001
Â
Figure 2: Effect size for gender differences in Symbolization across countries
| mean age | SD age | mean internalization | SD internalization | N | r | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 47.38 | 15.29 | 8.31 | 1.5 | 721 | 0.151 | < .001** |
| Australia | 47.07 | 17.58 | 7.47 | 1.79 | 2127 | -0.207 | < .001** |
| Austria | 49.8 | 14.19 | 7.9 | 1.59 | 1354 | 0.103 | < .001** |
| Bangladesh | 32.35 | 11.01 | 8.67 | 1.28 | 364 | -0.234 | < .001** |
| Belgium | 46.17 | 18.62 | 7.77 | 1.49 | 1139 | 0.153 | < .001** |
| Bolivia | 43.41 | 12.98 | 8.24 | 1.47 | 29 | 0.389 | .037* |
| Brazil | 37.21 | 14.09 | 8.45 | 1.56 | 1765 | 0.089 | < .001** |
| Bulgaria | 30.53 | 10.99 | 8.25 | 1.74 | 624 | 0.036 | .366 |
| Canada | 43.41 | 17.39 | 7.91 | 1.74 | 961 | -0.074 | .022* |
| Chile | 49.21 | 15.47 | 8.16 | 1.43 | 97 | -0.033 | .750 |
| China | 43.24 | 14.02 | 7.59 | 1.31 | 1030 | 0.07 | .025* |
| Colombia | 40.57 | 15.45 | 8.34 | 1.59 | 1210 | 0.123 | < .001** |
| Costa Rica | 44.64 | 12.73 | 8.06 | 1.42 | 25 | 0.082 | .696 |
| Croatia | 45.96 | 14.56 | 7.58 | 1.79 | 505 | 0.019 | .669 |
| Cuba | 48.65 | 12.73 | 8.89 | 1.46 | 43 | -0.027 | .863 |
| Denmark | 48.91 | 17.52 | 7.11 | 1.86 | 553 | 0.061 | .151 |
| Dominican Republic | 40.39 | 12.46 | 8.73 | 1.48 | 36 | -0.095 | .580 |
| Ecuador | 40.64 | 11.98 | 8.21 | 1.43 | 148 | 0.05 | .550 |
| El Salvador | 46.43 | 11.51 | 8.47 | 1.43 | 28 | 0.222 | .257 |
| Finland | 38.27 | 12.94 | 7.64 | 1.63 | 677 | 0.082 | .032* |
| France | 43.13 | 16.16 | 6.97 | 1.71 | 1111 | -0.096 | .001* |
| Germany | 49.34 | 16.16 | 7.24 | 1.95 | 1543 | -0.051 | .045* |
| Greece | 29.77 | 11.45 | 8.16 | 1.44 | 635 | 0.112 | .005* |
| Guatemala | 44.67 | 13.31 | 8.65 | 1.52 | 48 | 0.182 | .215 |
| Honduras | 39.25 | 14.3 | 9.02 | 1.25 | 24 | -0.075 | .728 |
| Hungary | 48.57 | 16.52 | 8.05 | 1.59 | 501 | 0.055 | .222 |
| India | 32.89 | 11.72 | 8.46 | 1.58 | 594 | -0.05 | .224 |
| Iraq | 31.06 | 14.08 | 7.78 | 1.69 | 532 | 0.006 | .882 |
| Ireland | 38.18 | 14.64 | 8.55 | 1.26 | 725 | 0.06 | .107 |
| Israel | 41.19 | 15.24 | 8.25 | 1.54 | 1241 | 0.058 | .040* |
| Italy | 46.76 | 16.72 | 7.47 | 1.66 | 1251 | 0.037 | .187 |
| Japan | 47.12 | 15.2 | 6.21 | 1.57 | 1148 | -0.036 | .220 |
| Latvia | 45.68 | 14.12 | 7.02 | 1.86 | 996 | 0.021 | .499 |
| Mexico | 47.82 | 13.77 | 8.31 | 1.56 | 1237 | 0.165 | < .001** |
| Morocco | 32.11 | 12.61 | 7.92 | 1.8 | 616 | -0.04 | .318 |
| Nepal | 27.99 | 7.61 | 8.42 | 1.47 | 340 | 0.135 | .013* |
| Netherlands | 49.61 | 16.81 | 7.71 | 1.48 | 1286 | 0.155 | < .001** |
| New Zealand | 45.73 | 17.62 | 7.63 | 1.7 | 509 | -0.095 | .032* |
| Nicaragua | 42.75 | 14.84 | 8.35 | 1.69 | 16 | -0.048 | .861 |
| Nigeria | 32.1 | 10.89 | 8.68 | 1.44 | 515 | 0.065 | .142 |
| North Macedonia | 37.95 | 11.51 | 8.19 | 1.6 | 670 | 0.158 | < .001** |
| Norway | 46.98 | 17.36 | 7.97 | 1.55 | 522 | 0.028 | .528 |
| Pakistan | 26.93 | 8.35 | 8.31 | 1.67 | 458 | 0.073 | .117 |
| Panama | 44.11 | 17.32 | 8.48 | 1.72 | 18 | 0.153 | .545 |
| Paraguay | 38.94 | 9.33 | 8.09 | 1.45 | 16 | 0.335 | .205 |
| Peru | 46.21 | 14.43 | 8.1 | 1.59 | 91 | -0.051 | .630 |
| Philippines | 36.77 | 12.3 | 8.2 | 1.64 | 499 | -0.02 | .664 |
| Poland | 46.45 | 17.1 | 7.44 | 1.77 | 1800 | 0.064 | .007* |
| Puerto Rico | 64 | 16.97 | 9.4 | 0.57 | 2 | - | - |
| Romania | 42.61 | 14.39 | 7.78 | 1.78 | 493 | 0.011 | .800 |
| Russia | 45.03 | 15.63 | 7.4 | 1.82 | 507 | -0.015 | .740 |
| Senegal | 35.62 | 13.04 | 8.34 | 1.66 | 300 | -0.108 | .063 |
| Serbia | 42.69 | 11.81 | 8.28 | 1.61 | 710 | 0.096 | .010* |
| Singapore | 42.97 | 13.75 | 7.39 | 1.65 | 516 | -0.028 | .526 |
| Slovakia | 43.55 | 15.86 | 7.47 | 1.69 | 1091 | 0.033 | .269 |
| South Africa | 39.64 | 13.34 | 8.74 | 1.27 | 559 | 0.016 | .714 |
| South Korea | 42.05 | 13.76 | 6.77 | 1.59 | 487 | -0.027 | .556 |
| Spain | 45.99 | 13.67 | 8.14 | 1.45 | 1077 | 0.16 | < .001** |
| Sweden | 52.94 | 15.38 | 8.11 | 1.48 | 1552 | 0.118 | < .001** |
| Switzerland | 47.97 | 16.66 | 7.18 | 1.77 | 1053 | 0.048 | .118 |
| Taiwan | 43.99 | 13.25 | 6.66 | 1.57 | 833 | 0.073 | .036* |
| Turkey | 37.3 | 15.28 | 8 | 1.71 | 1426 | 0.037 | .158 |
| Ukraine | 37.45 | 8.03 | 7.57 | 1.64 | 577 | -0.111 | .008* |
| United Arab Emirates | 31.9 | 8.6 | 8.46 | 1.5 | 181 | -0.013 | .865 |
| United Kingdom | 45.61 | 15.58 | 8.53 | 1.3 | 546 | -0.055 | .196 |
| United States | 44.43 | 16.56 | 7.37 | 1.9 | 1459 | -0.198 | < .001** |
| Uruguay | 52.88 | 13.7 | 8.13 | 1.58 | 49 | 0.247 | .087 |
| Venezuela | 46.53 | 12.97 | 8.4 | 1.79 | 96 | 0.074 | .474 |
Note. * = sig. at p < .05; ** = sig. at p < .001
Â
| mean age | SD age | mean symbolization | SD symbolization | N | r | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 47.38 | 15.29 | 5.61 | 2.26 | 721 | 0.151 | < .001** |
| Australia | 47.07 | 17.59 | 5.46 | 2.03 | 2130 | -0.206 | < .001** |
| Austria | 49.81 | 14.14 | 5 | 2.04 | 1373 | 0.101 | < .001** |
| Bangladesh | 32.27 | 11 | 5.96 | 2.23 | 367 | -0.235 | < .001** |
| Belgium | 46.24 | 18.63 | 4.75 | 1.92 | 1150 | 0.156 | < .001** |
| Bolivia | 43.41 | 12.98 | 6.26 | 2 | 29 | 0.389 | .037* |
| Brazil | 37.22 | 14.09 | 6.05 | 2.14 | 1773 | 0.087 | < .001** |
| Bulgaria | 30.67 | 11.14 | 5.24 | 2.36 | 630 | 0.032 | .425 |
| Canada | 43.44 | 17.38 | 5.07 | 1.91 | 963 | -0.073 | .024* |
| Chile | 49.21 | 15.47 | 5.56 | 2.29 | 97 | -0.033 | .750 |
| China | 43.24 | 14.02 | 6.44 | 1.51 | 1030 | 0.07 | .025* |
| Colombia | 40.58 | 15.45 | 5.77 | 2.29 | 1221 | 0.121 | < .001** |
| Costa Rica | 44.64 | 12.73 | 5.62 | 2.38 | 25 | 0.082 | .696 |
| Croatia | 45.96 | 14.56 | 5.06 | 2.01 | 509 | 0.025 | .578 |
| Cuba | 48.65 | 12.73 | 7.09 | 2.53 | 43 | -0.027 | .863 |
| Denmark | 48.91 | 17.52 | 4.49 | 2.02 | 553 | 0.061 | .151 |
| Dominican Republic | 40.39 | 12.46 | 6.93 | 2.19 | 36 | -0.095 | .580 |
| Ecuador | 40.64 | 11.98 | 6.21 | 2.3 | 148 | 0.05 | .550 |
| El Salvador | 46.43 | 11.51 | 4.83 | 3.11 | 28 | 0.222 | .257 |
| Finland | 38.27 | 12.94 | 3.79 | 1.98 | 677 | 0.082 | .032* |
| France | 43.18 | 16.19 | 5.31 | 1.89 | 1116 | -0.093 | .002* |
| Germany | 49.58 | 16.14 | 4.43 | 2.2 | 1587 | -0.049 | .050 |
| Greece | 29.77 | 11.45 | 4.58 | 1.79 | 635 | 0.112 | .005* |
| Guatemala | 44.67 | 13.31 | 6.02 | 2.41 | 48 | 0.182 | .215 |
| Honduras | 39.25 | 14.3 | 7.61 | 1.85 | 24 | -0.075 | .728 |
| Hungary | 48.53 | 16.56 | 5.46 | 2.1 | 505 | 0.051 | .254 |
| India | 33.05 | 11.79 | 5.05 | 2.36 | 614 | -0.062 | .124 |
| Iraq | 31.05 | 14 | 5.8 | 1.89 | 540 | 0.007 | .875 |
| Ireland | 38.16 | 14.62 | 4.97 | 2.03 | 728 | 0.059 | .109 |
| Israel | 41.2 | 15.24 | 4.98 | 2.04 | 1242 | 0.057 | .045* |
| Italy | 46.7 | 16.72 | 5.86 | 1.93 | 1260 | 0.033 | .239 |
| Japan | 47.11 | 15.2 | 4.43 | 1.73 | 1154 | -0.038 | .200 |
| Latvia | 45.68 | 14.12 | 4.89 | 1.92 | 996 | 0.021 | .499 |
| Mexico | 47.81 | 13.75 | 6.14 | 2.32 | 1245 | 0.164 | < .001** |
| Morocco | 32.26 | 12.68 | 5.23 | 2.27 | 634 | -0.039 | .327 |
| Nepal | 28.02 | 7.59 | 6.62 | 1.8 | 343 | 0.139 | .010* |
| Netherlands | 49.63 | 16.83 | 4.78 | 1.98 | 1296 | 0.158 | < .001** |
| New Zealand | 45.76 | 17.62 | 5.37 | 1.91 | 510 | -0.09 | .043* |
| Nicaragua | 42.75 | 14.84 | 5.8 | 3.04 | 16 | -0.048 | .861 |
| Nigeria | 32.08 | 10.84 | 7.2 | 1.92 | 521 | 0.064 | .146 |
| North Macedonia | 38.04 | 11.54 | 5.32 | 2.18 | 684 | 0.161 | < .001** |
| Norway | 46.97 | 17.4 | 4.82 | 1.85 | 527 | 0.035 | .426 |
| Pakistan | 26.95 | 8.33 | 6.04 | 1.93 | 463 | 0.07 | .133 |
| Panama | 44.11 | 17.32 | 5.73 | 2.65 | 18 | 0.153 | .545 |
| Paraguay | 38.94 | 9.33 | 6.26 | 2.56 | 16 | 0.335 | .205 |
| Peru | 46.21 | 14.43 | 5.89 | 2.25 | 91 | -0.051 | .630 |
| Philippines | 36.8 | 12.3 | 6.56 | 1.95 | 502 | -0.015 | .733 |
| Poland | 46.45 | 17.1 | 5.45 | 1.92 | 1800 | 0.064 | .007* |
| Puerto Rico | 64 | 16.97 | 7.8 | 1.41 | 2 | - | - |
| Romania | 42.65 | 14.43 | 6.24 | 1.92 | 497 | 0.016 | .715 |
| Russia | 45.03 | 15.63 | 4.07 | 2.06 | 507 | -0.015 | .740 |
| Senegal | 35.52 | 13.04 | 5.5 | 2.51 | 320 | -0.091 | .104 |
| Serbia | 42.69 | 11.85 | 4.34 | 2.23 | 720 | 0.097 | .009* |
| Singapore | 43.01 | 13.74 | 5.58 | 1.84 | 518 | -0.029 | .505 |
| Slovakia | 43.57 | 15.85 | 5.47 | 2.05 | 1096 | 0.033 | .278 |
| South Africa | 39.67 | 13.25 | 5.87 | 2.17 | 601 | 0.026 | .527 |
| South Korea | 42.04 | 13.75 | 6.09 | 1.48 | 490 | -0.024 | .590 |
| Spain | 46 | 13.68 | 4.97 | 2.01 | 1089 | 0.157 | < .001** |
| Sweden | 52.91 | 15.4 | 4.69 | 2.04 | 1564 | 0.12 | < .001** |
| Switzerland | 47.97 | 16.66 | 4.9 | 1.94 | 1053 | 0.048 | .118 |
| Taiwan | 43.99 | 13.25 | 5.11 | 1.84 | 833 | 0.073 | .036* |
| Turkey | 37.28 | 15.29 | 5.96 | 2.3 | 1434 | 0.036 | .171 |
| Ukraine | 37.45 | 8.03 | 4.38 | 2.26 | 577 | -0.111 | .008* |
| United Arab Emirates | 31.83 | 8.56 | 5.9 | 1.98 | 184 | -0.013 | .856 |
| United Kingdom | 45.61 | 15.57 | 4.54 | 2.06 | 547 | -0.055 | .195 |
| United States | 44.44 | 16.55 | 6.07 | 2.13 | 1463 | -0.199 | < .001** |
| Uruguay | 52.88 | 13.7 | 5.32 | 2.24 | 49 | 0.247 | .087 |
| Venezuela | 46.53 | 12.97 | 6.06 | 2.58 | 96 | 0.074 | .474 |
Note. * = sig. at p < .05; ** = sig. at p < .001
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Figure 3: Relationship between Power Diatance and Symbolization
Figure 4: Relationship between Individualism and Symbolization
Figure 5: Relationship between Masculinity and Symbolization
Figure 6: Relationship between Long Term Orientation and Symbolization
Figure 7: Relationship between Indulgence and Symbolization
Figure 8: Relationship between Domain General Tightness and Symbolization
Figure 9: Relationship between Domain Specific Tightness and Symbolization
Figure 10: Relationship between Tightness: Combination and Symbolization
Figure 11: Relationship between Power Diatance and Internalization
Figure 12: Relationship between Individualism and Internalization
Figure 13: Relationship between Uncertainty Avoidance and Internalization
Figure 14: Relationship between Long Term Orientation and Internalization
Figure 15: Relationship between Indulgence and Internalization
Figure 16: Relationship between Domain General Tightness and Internalization
Figure 17: Relationship between Domain Specific Tightness and Internalization
Figure 18: Relationship between Tightness: Combination and Internalization